The Evolution of Indian Accounting Standards: Its History and Current Status with Regard to International Financial Reporting Standards

1. Introduction Propelled by globalization, world attention today is centered on two emerging market economies, India and China. China's managed liberalization has allowed it to achieve more rapid growth and has attracted a larger portion of direct foreign investment. India, with its messy democracy and nod to individualism in recent times promises a more exciting market environment with greater potential for future growth. The liberalization of the Indian economy since 1991 has exposed Indian firms to foreign competition and foreign investment. As a result, the information needs required by both managers and investors have changed. A first step in this process is the demand for transparency in the financial reporting. This transparency is rapidly occurring in India as the country catapults into becoming a major economic power propelled on by the combined forces of the technological revolution, the opening up of its borders and the privatization of many infrastructure industries such as transportation and communication. This paper addresses the adoption and applicability of International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to India. 3 Specifically, the paper highlights some major areas where the country lacked harmonization with IAS in 1993 and the rapid congruence with IAS in the decade that followed. The attempt to achieve congruence with IAS appears to be more a by-product of the country's rapid economic growth rather than its catalyst. However, continued growth and the attraction of foreign capital to domestic ventures will depend on the transparency of the financial dealings. The Institute of the Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI), India's standard setting body, is increasingly attempting to provide this transparency by revisions and additions to accounting standards, and by Exposure Drafts which aim to bring India more in line with International Financial Reporting Standards. The focus of this paper is on the evolution of these Indian Accounting Standards. 2. Literature review In order to effectively review the literature with regards to harmonization of accounting standards in general, it is deemed appropriate to first examine the International Accounting Standards Board's (IASB) position, reasons for harmonization, and recent efforts towards this goal. Epstein and Mirza (1997) define the IASB's goals as first, to promote the acceptance of proposed accounting standards across the world; and second, to continue improvement in the harmonization of accounting standards, regulations, and procedures. As of 1990, sixteen countries had achieved 100% conformance with the thirty IAS that existed at the time, and seven developing countries such as Pakistan and Malaysia had adopted IAS fully as their own national standards (Gernon, Purvis, & Diamond, 1990). As of October 2007, a total of seventy-three countries have made IFRS a requirement for reporting for domestic listed companies. Despite this seemingly widespread acceptance, some research suspects the irrelevance or inapplicability of common standards in certain national environments ([Larson and Kenny, 1996], [Larson and Kenny, 1995, Summer] and [Fechner and Kilgore, 1994]). Based on their research, Larson and Kenny (1996) conclude that the adoption of IAS depend on a country's economic development theory, and its proposed level of adoption of the IAS. They also find no support for the hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between adoption of IAS and level of economic growth, and between adoption of IAS and level of equity market development (Larson & Kenny, 1995). In a panel discussion of policy setters concerning harmonization of accounting standards in 1990, several panel members noted that harmonization of accounting standards may not be appropriate or cost effective. They suggested large, multinational companies around the globe had the abilities and the funds to cope with lack of harmonization. As a result, they perceived a lack of incentive for preparers and users to harmonize accounting standards (Gernon et al. , 1990). The largest obstacle hindering the harmonization of accounting standards is national culture, especially in developing countries. Riahi-Belkaoui (1995) researched the required accounting standards across thirty-three national stock exchanges and found that accounting disclosure is significantly affected by the cultural dimensions of power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance studied by Geert Hofstede. In particular, Riahi-Belkaoui (1995) found that in â€Å"societies in which people accept a hierarchical order in which everyone occupies a place that needs no justification†¦Ã¢â‚¬  people are â€Å"expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only†¦. As a result, these societies are â€Å"tolerant of ambiguity and have strong conditions for extended disclosure requirements of stock exchanges† (p. 124). Hence, disclosure requirements of stock exchanges of certain developing nations were more extensive than that nation's general financial reporting standards. This is a major point in the case of India, whose stock exchange, for example, required a statement of c ash flows long before its general standard – setting body did in 2000. Also, since 2002, consolidated financial statements have been required by the Securities Exchange Board of India, while the Accounting Standards Board (ASB) of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) only provides some loose guidelines to date (Deloitte, 2007). Along this same vein, other researchers suggest the influence of many external factors on the development of accounting standards such as cultural factors, the external environment, and the institutional structure ([Fechner and Kilgore, 1994] and [Doupnik and Salter, 1995]). According to this research, these varying effects on accounting standard – setting are significant, and along with varying legal systems, are found to be major determinants which cause conflict in setting accounting standards (Doupnik & Salter, 1995). Fechner and Kilgore (1994) have proposed a modified general framework to assess the extent to which economic factors, cultural factors, and the accounting subculture (uniformity, professionalism, conservatism, and secrecy), directly or indirectly affect accounting practice. In spite of opinions, conflicts and hindrances to the contrary, there is abundant support in favor of international accounting harmonization and for the adoption of IAS in the literature ([Epstein and Mirza, 1997], [Graham and Wang, 1995], [Wyatt, 1992, Spring] and [Gernon et al. , 1990]). For example, Gernon et al. (1990) point out that the benefits of harmonization range from better decision making within a firm with respect to asset allocation, to improving the efficiency of capital markets, and increasing competitiveness among firms within and across national boundaries irrespective of a country's stage of development. Complementing this argument, Riahi-Belkaoui (1994), notes that accounting standard harmonization is crucial to a developing country which needs outside capital or foreign loans as potential investors and creditors often rely on these financial statements in making decisions such as allocation of capital. Furthermore, he points out that harmonization is often mistaken for â€Å"complete standardization† (1994) whereas harmonization recognizes the specific needs of each country. Therefore, he suggests the first step in harmonization should be to recognize certain country – specific issues, and to reconcile them with the objectives of other countries. The second step should be then to â€Å"correct or eliminate some of these barriers in order to achieve an acceptable degree of harmonization. † As a starting point, the evolution of the Indian accounting system is investigated and the various domestic influences, such as economic, political, legal, socio-cultural and academic factors, are considered along with international influences that may have had an impact. Secondly, the bare essentials of the Indian accounting system are juxtaposed with the international standards and a compare and contrast approach is adopted for the purpose of analysis. Thirdly, the major differences with respect to accounting treatment – statutory requirements for certain items and altogether absence of these requirements for other items – are highlighted, along with the degree of disclosure of information in financial reports. Finally, an attempt is made to identify various causes and effects of such differences and variations. 3. The historical development of Indian accounting standards The evolution of India's present day accounting system can be traced back to as early as the sixteenth century with India's trade links to Europe and central Asia through the historic silk route. The subsequent entry of the East India Company had widespread influence on Indian trade and commerce, and soon the economy was virtually taken over by the company's owners. The British government, realizing immense potential by way of business opportunities, natural resources and manpower, decided to colonize India by taking over the East India Company. The British Raj (rule) explains the almost identical pattern of accounting and financial reporting practices between India and England (Marston, 1986). However, since 1947, when India regained independence, some changes have taken place to accommodate the special needs of the Indian economy. Indian accounting practices reflect its diversity as India has eighteen official languages and scores of dialects spread over twenty – eight states and seven union territories. Each state has its own distinct culture and general trade practices. Furthermore, the accounting practices of the unorganized rural/agricultural sector and the small-scale–urban–industrial sector vary considerably from one region to another. The establishment of a certain uniformity in the accounting and trade practices for these sectors is, therefore, nearly impossible. Moreover, a large number of businesses are controlled by tightly knit conservative families and the management of such businesses is usually very reluctant to disclose any financial information for reasons of privacy and fear of competitors. 4 A vast majority of the Indian population lives in the rural area, with very low levels of education and economic development. The primary source of income for this majority is through agriculture, although virtually no agricultural accounting system exists. Due to the linguistic and intra-cultural differences, it is also not possible to bring about a standardization in rural accounting practices. Changes to this scenario began to occur with the introduction of the Panchayati system or the grass roots level of administration by the late Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi. This program empowers the Village Chief with political and financial administration within the boundaries of the Indian Constitution, and has been fairly successful in that it has made a substantial dent on the existing sluggishness in the underground economy. In sharp contrast, India is one of the world's largest industrial nations in the world, a military superpower in its own right, and a world leader in space research and satellite technology. A jolt to the Indian economy occurred in 1991, when India strained for foreign reserves and pressure from the International Monetary Fund, (IMF) introduced major changes in economic policy. The net result was a substantial reduction in government interference and in taxes on the business sector, long favored by then Finance Minister (now Prime Minister) Manmohan Singh. Markets were opened up to foreign collaboration and investment. Segments of the public sector were privatized (Anderson & Lanen, 1999). As a result, India has emerged as a major player in exporting software technology, industrial and consumer goods, and financial services through a large number of multinational corporations. The presence of such global conglomerates also means increased interaction with international organizations such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, United Nations, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, just to name a few. However, the public sector still continues to play a major role in the Indian economy since all industries that are relevant to national defense and security are owned by the Indian government and account for a major portion of the nation's industrial economy. The accounting practices of this public sector, along with that of the organized private sector, fall into the realm of The Companies Act, 1956, and are similar in many respects to International Accounting Standards. The involvement of international institutions and businesses in financial matters makes it even more imperative that the Indian accounting system be compatible with its international counterpart. The Indian accounting system, which is based on the Companies Act of 1956, is basically a copy from its counterpart in the U. K. The Act has been amended several times to suit Indian conditions. More notable amongst the amendments are the ones in 1965 and 1969, which introduced regulations relating to maintenance of cost accounts and requirements for a cost audit. Also relevant are the two notifications issued in 1971 and 1973, which extended disclosure rules considerably (Marston, 1986). Research efforts at several Indian universities and other organizations have been commendable and have exerted influence on the accounting system in that they have focused on the changing needs of accounting with respect to the rapidly changing economic and technological environment. Such organizations include: the Indian Council of Social Science Research, which organizes research surveys in the areas of accounting and financial management; the Indian Accounting Association, which has made significant contributions through independent accounting research; and the Institute of the Chartered Accountants of India, (ICAI), which promulgates accounting standards for use by Indian companies. 5 Other international bodies, of which India is an active member, have also contributed towards bringing the Indian accounting system to par with International Accounting Standards. Examples of such bodies are: the Confederation of Asian and Pacific Accountants; and the Ad hoc Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts on International Standards of Accounting and Reporting (Marston, 1986). In addition, the Financial Stability Forum organized by Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors of the G7 has helped to promote standards for global best practices (Echeverri-Gent, 2001). As a result of all these forces, an amendment to the Companies Act was enacted in October 1998 which established a new National Advisory Committee on Accounting Standards (Deloitte, 2007). However, cultural and political dimensions continue to influence India's accounting practices. 4. Comparative analysis of the international accounting standards and the accounting standards and practices of India Our analysis of the differences in International Accounting Standards (IAS) and the accounting standards and practices of India is presented in this section. Gernon et al. (1990) note six ways of evaluating national standards in conjunction with the IAS, which they extracted from an IASC survey entitled Survey of the Use and Application of IAS 1988. The six categories are as follows: 1. IAS adopted as national standard, 2. IAS used as the basis for a national requirement, 3. National requirements conform ‘in all material respects, with IAS’, 4. National practice ‘generally conforms with IAS’, 5. National requirements do ‘not conform with IAS’, and 6. National practice does ‘not generally conform with IAS’. Differences between accounting standards issued in India and accounting standards issued by the IASB fall under items five and six – either national requirements do not conform, or national practice does not conform. Using these criteria, Gernon et al. (1990) found India's conformity index with IAS to be 56%, in the decade before the 90s. It was the fifth lowest among the countries represented. Since Gernon et al. ‘s study in 1990, the IASB revised many of its standards, which became effective in 1995 (Epstein & Mirza, 1997). This â€Å"Comparability/Improvements Project† attempted to narrow the alternatives available to adopting countries. 6 Ten IAS were revised under this project and are included in IAS 1997: Interpretation and Application of IAS 1997. The standards affected include: inventories; errors and changes; research and development; construction contracts; property, plant and equipment; revenue recognition; retirement benefits; foreign exchange rates; business combinations; and borrowing costs (Epstein & Mirza, 1997). Our research and analysis of IAS includes these revisions. For purposes of our research, accounting standards used in India were extracted from the International Accounting Summaries of 1993 (Coopers & Lybrand (International), 1993) and from the Accounting Standards Updates by Jurisdiction (Deloitte, 2007). This includes accounting standards and guidance notes issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) and the Companies Act of 1956. The ICAI had issued twelve standards as of 1993, seven of which were mandatory. These 12 standards are contrasted against the IAS. 7 Appearing in descending order of IAS, the major differences in accounting standards are outlined below according to the same format used by Graham and Wang (1995). 4. 1. IAS 2 – Inventories Based upon the Comparability / Improvements Project, the base stock method for costing of inventories is now prohibited, while the last-in, first-out (LIFO) method, has been reduced to an â€Å"allowed alternative† (Epstein and Mirza, p. 11). The Indian Accounting Standard, AS 2, revised in 1999, is generally in line with the IAS now with FIFO being the popular method among public limited companies. However, there are many firms still using the LIFO method, which is the allowed alternative under IAS, (Shankaraiah and Rao). This practice contrasts with the earlier period when under accounting standards issued by the ICAI, the base stock method could be used in â€Å"exceptional circumstances†, and the LIFO method was normally accepted (Coopers & Lybrand (International), 1993). Yet the fact that different procedures are still allowed make it difficult to compare performances across firms. 4. 2. IAS 7 – Cash flow statements Epstein and Mirza (1997) note that national and international accounting standard setters view the statement of cash flows as a â€Å"necessary component of complete financial reporting†. Thus, the statement of cash flows is a required component of a set of financial statements to be prepared under IAS. Under standards issued by the ICAI, AS 3, revised in 1997, either a funds flow statement or a statement of cash flows is acceptable. In practice, the majority of firms provide a funds flow statement with their annual reports. This is a significant change from the earlier period when the statement of changes in financial position (funds flow statement) was recommended but was not common practice (Coopers & Lybrand (International), 1993). However, under Clause 32 of the listing agreements for stock exchanges, a cash flow statement in similar conformance with the corresponding IAS was required for Indian companies at the time. An example could be found in the1995-6 Annual Report of Tata Iron & Steel, now Tata Steel (Tata Iron & Steel, 1996). 4. 3. IAS 8 – Net profit or loss for period, fundamental errors and changes in accounting policies Effective in 1995, IAS 8 allows as an alternative, inclusion the effects of errors in current period income, while the ICAI standards (AS 5) permit this approach as the only accounting treatment. However, AS 5 requires only the disclosure of prior period items but not its effect on current income (Shankaraiah and Rao). AS 5 was revised in 1997 and an exposure draft was issued in 2001 proposing limited revisions. 4. 4. IAS 11 – Construction contracts Based upon the IASB's Comparability/Improvements Project, the percentage-of-completion method for accounting for construction contracts is required, and the completed contract method is no longer allowed. The ICAI standard, AS 7, revised in 2002, allows for both the percentage-of-completion method and completed contract method but recommends the percentage-of-completion method if a reliable estimate of the outcome is possible. Also, under the umbrella of construction contracts is IAS 23 – Borrowing Costs. Under IAS, interest incurred on a construction contract should be expensed. This is the benchmark treatment. Capitalization of interest costs is an allowed alternative. The ICAI standards, AS 16, allow capitalization of interest if it is incurred during the period of construction. 4. 5. IAS 12 – Accounting for taxes on income IAS 12 permits the use of the tax deferral method or the tax liability method, in accounting for income taxes. The ICAI permits use of the tax payable method or the tax liability method. Also, the IAS prescribe a three year reversal period before timing differences can be excluded, while under tax laws in India the reversal period is five years. Also, under tax laws in India, a tax loss is permitted to be carried forward for eight years, while IAS 12 does not specifically prescribe a time period. 4. 6. IAS 14 – Reporting financial information by segment IAS 14 requires disclosure of segmental information if the firm has public subsidiaries, or if national standards require such treatment. AS 17, issued in 2000, is broadly in line with IAS 14. No such requirement existed earlier, but there were extensive disclosure requirements when reporting by product. As of October 2007, IAS 14 has been superseded by IFRS 8 – Operating segments. 4. 7. IAS 16 – Property, plant and equipment Under the Comparability/Improvements Project, IAS 16 now suggests historical cost as the benchmark in valuing property, plant and equipment. Revaluation is the allowed alternative. Under the ICAI's standards, AS 10, the appraisal method is preferred, and the most common in practice. 4. 8. IAS 17 – Accounting for leases Accounting standards issued by the ICAI did not include leases in 1993. In practice, no distinction was made between financial and operating leases. Under IAS 17, provisions for accounting for leases include both capital and operating leases. Accounting standards for leases were issued by ICAI in 2001, AS 19. These standards are broadly in line with IAS. 4. 9. IAS 19 – Retirement benefit cost IAS 19 requires actuarial valuations to be allocated to income on a systematic basis. Also, new under the Comparability / Improvements Project the accrued benefit valuation method is the benchmark in accounting for pensions, and the projected benefit method is the allowed alternative. Standards issued in India, AS 15, had no language concerning valuation methods, and no specific reference on how to account for actuarial valuations. However, the standards that were revised in 2005 and became effective in 2006, require that enterprises â€Å"actuarially determine and provide for such liability based on the ‘Projected Unit Credit Method’†(Deloitte, 2007). 4. 10. IAS 21 – The effects of changes in foreign exchange rate Since accounting standards issued by the ICAI do not require consolidation, the effect of changes in foreign exchange rates are reflected in the financial statements of the foreign branches of the â€Å"parent† company. The benchmark under IAS 21 is to recognize the effect of fluctuations in exchange rates as differences in income or expense in the period incurred. The allowed alternative is to include the difference in the carrying value of the related asset. Under the ICAI's standards, revised in 1994 and 2000, exchange rate differences are accounted for in the carrying value of the asset only for fixed assets. For all other accounts, differences are recognized as income or expense in the period incurred. For foreign entities not integral to operations, the IAS prescribe accounting for all assets and liabilities at the closing rate. Assuming foreign branches outside of India to be non-integral, non-monetary items are accounted for at the rate prevalent on the date of transaction under India's accounting standards. Clearly, the issue of accounting for changes in foreign exchange rates is in a state of flux in India, and a hotly debated item, as the rupee continues to strengthen. It has moved upwards relative to the dollar by 15% since 2004 with most of it occurring in the period 2006–2007. 4. 11. IAS 22 (superseded by IFRS 3) – Business combinations The Companies Act of India had no requirement for consolidation until April 2001. In turn, there was no requirement to write off goodwill, or to use the equity method. Subsidiaries normally accounted for in consolidation were accounted for as investments. AS 21 requires a parent company preparing financial statements to provide financial information about the economic activities, resources, obligations and results of its group. It is not mandatory to prepare consolidated financial statements. However, the Securities Exchange Board requires listed companies to prepare consolidated statements as of 2002. 4. 12. IAS 24 – Related party disclosure Although there was no prescribed accounting treatment by the ICAI or the Companies Act concerning related party transactions or disclosures, the Act did specifically define related parties. AS 18, issued in 2000, is now broadly in line with IAS 24. 4. 13. IAS 31 – Financial reporting of interests in joint ventures Accounting standards issued by ICAI had no standard concerning the different forms of joint ventures until 2002. Jointly controlled entities were accounted for as long term investments. AS 27, reporting of interests in Joint Ventures lays out principles and procedures for accounting for Joint Ventures for both venture partners and investors. The standards still differ from IAS. In accounting for jointly controlled entities, IAS 31 prescribes proportionate consolidation as the benchmark; and the equity method as the allowed alternative. The above analysis indicates that there are many critical issues that need to be dealt with by India's standard setting body, the ICAI. An important consideration in analyzing the differences between IAS and standards issued in India is the absence of mandatory requirements for consolidated financial statements. Fischer, Taylor, and Leer (1993) suggest that the presentation of consolidated financial statements is of great importance to the parent company's stockholders. Firms in India account for their subsidiaries as investments under the cost method of accounting for investments. This is perhaps a grave misinterpretation of the parent company's economic substance. The use of the cost method in accounting for subsidiaries in contrast to consolidation accounting represents the legal form of the companies, but does not represent the more important economic substance. In addition, the lack of consolidated financial statements in a developing country such as India impedes the progress towards comparability of multinational financial statements. Many large Indian companies have numerous subsidiary companies whose selected financial figures are presented separately in the annual reports as opposed to being consolidated with the â€Å"parent† companies. This makes it increasingly difficult for potential investors and financial analysts worldwide to make knowledgeable decisions. As recent as March 2007, the Press Trust of India quoted the ICAI president, Sunil H. Talati, as saying that Indian accountants face problems in accounting for mergers and acquisitions. However, as Indian companies opt to get listed on exchanges at home, the Securities Exchange Board of India requires consolidated financial statements. 5. Conclusions In recent years, India, one of the fastest growing economies has captured the attention of investors worldwide. Since the early nineties, following the opening up of the economy with more liberal policies, technical and financial collaborations have increased multifold and so has foreign direct investment and portfolio investment (Anderson & Lanen, 1999). Nevertheless, certain archaic accounting practices still continue. In their study on managerial accounting practices in India, Anderson and Lanen, 1999 S. W. Anderson and W. N. Lanen, Economic transition, strategy and the evolution of management accounting practices: The case of India, Accounting, Organizations and Society 24 (1999), pp. 379–412. Abstract | PDF (297 K) | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (21)Anderson and Lanen (1999) report little involvement by investors and owners in the development of strategy which still is to a large extent controlled by the government. The Company's Act restricts â€Å"takeovers† and blocks transactions that the government may view as prejudicial to the interests of the company or the public. It is not surprising therefore to find that financial accounting practices mirror this policy by the lack of consolidation of parent and subsidiary financial statements, a major divergence from the IAS. Fischer et al. (1993) note that â€Å"stockholders are interested in the total financial position of the corporation, regardless of how diversified the operations have become† (p. 64). They also report that unconsolidated subsidiaries are very rare in businesses today. The push for changes in accounting practices appears to come from the equity markets. Change has come more rapidly to the equity markets because reform in these markets â€Å"have not aroused as much political opposition† (Echeverri-Gent, 2001). However the banking and business sectors are still steeped in tradition and political agendas of national and state parties affect their evolution. Besides, it is also important to consider the strong cultural element present in India. This could impede the process somewhat even though over the last few years many Indian standards have sought conformance with the International Accounting Standards (Narayanaswamy, 1992). Nevertheless, in March 2007, the Press Trust of India reported that India had adopted only 21 IAS in comparison to the 47 IAS adopted by several developed countries. Press Trust of India, 2007). In July 2007, the council of the ICAI announced a plan to converge the Indian Accounting Standards with the International Financial Reporting Standards (formerly IAS). However, it retained the stipulation that any modifications will still have to reflect â€Å"Indian conditions. † (Deloitte, 2007). The new standards will be effective on or after April 1, 2011. Our study of the Indian accounting system in conjunction with the International Accounting Standards indicates the importance of developing comparable financial statements in emerging economies with those of the developed world. In India, the political and social impediments need to be tackled in order to improve comparability for financial statement users. On the Business Competitiveness Index, India is ranked 48th among industrial countries. By conforming to international standards, India would be taking the necessary steps to improve its competitive position in world markets. References Anderson and Lanen, 1999 S. W. Anderson and W. N. Lanen, Economic transition, strategy and the evolution of management accounting practices: The case of India, Accounting, Organizations and Society 24 (1999), pp. 79–412. Abstract | PDF (297 K) | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (21) Coopers and Lybrand (International), 1993 Coopers and Lybrand (International), International accounting summaries, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York, NY (1993). Deloitte, 2007 Deloitte, Accounting standards updates by jurisdiction (2007). Doupnik and Salter, 1995 Timothy S. Doupnik and Stephen B. Salter, External environment, culture, and accounting practice: A preliminary test of a general model of international accounting development, The International Journal of Accounting 30 (1995), pp. 189–207. Echeverri-Gent, 2001, August John Echeverri-Gent, Political economy of India's fiscal and financial reform, Center for Research on Economic Development and Policy Reform (2001, August). Epstein and Mirza, 1997 Barry J. Epstein and Abbas Ali Mirza, IAS 97: Interpretation and application of International Accounting Standards, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New York, NY (1997). Fechner and Kilgore, 1994 Harry H. E. Fechner and Alan Kilgore, The influence of cultural factors on accounting practice, The International Journal of Accounting 29 (1994), pp. 265–277. Fischer et al. , 1993 Paul M. Fischer, William J. Taylor and J. Arthur Leer, Advanced accounting (5th Edition), College Division, South-Western Publishing Co. , Cincinnati, OH (1993). Gernon et al. , 1990 Helen Gernon, S. E. C. Purvis and Micheal A. Diamond, An analysis of the implications of the IASC's Comparability Project, School of Accounting, University of Southern California: SEC and Financial Reporting Institute (1990). Graham and Wang, 1995 Roger C. Graham and Chin-hsin Coco Wang, Taiwan and International Accounting Standards: A comparison, The International Journal of Accounting 30 (1995), pp. 49–167. Larson and Kenny, 1995, Summer Robert K. Larson and Sara York Kenny, An empirical analysis of international accounting standards, equity markets, and economic growth in developing countries, Journal of International Financial Management and Accounting 6 (1995, Summer), pp. 130–157. Full Text via CrossRef Larson and Kenny, 1996 Robert K. Larson and Sara York Kenny, Accounting standard-setting s trategies and theories of economic development: Implications for the adoption of international accounting standards, Advances in International Accounting 9 (1996), pp. 1–20. Marston, 1986 Claire Marston, Financial reporting in India, Croom Helm, London, UK (1986). Narayanaswamy, 1992 R. Narayanaswamy, Accounting for leases by lessees in India: Some evidence of economic impact, The International Journal of Accounting 27 (1992), pp. 255–261. Press Trust of India, 2007 Press Trust of India, ICAI sets up taskforce on accounting standards, PTI-The Press Trust of India (2007). Riahi-Belkaoui, 1994 Ahmed Riahi-Belkaoui, Accounting in the developing countries, Quorum Books, Westport, CT (1994). Riahi-Belkaoui, 1995 Ahmed Riahi-Belkaoui, The cultural shaping of accounting, Quorum Books, Westport, CT (1995). Shankaraiah and Rao Shankaraiah, K. , & Rao, D. N. Corporate governance and accounting standards in India. An empirical study on practices. Working Paper. (February 10, 2004). Available at SSRN: http://ssm. com/abstract=501242. The Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited, 1996 The Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited, Eighty-Ninth Annual Report, 1995–6 (1996) Tata Steel, Fort Mumbai, INDIA. Wyatt, 1992, Spring Arthur R. Wyatt, An era of harmonization, Journal of International Financial Management and Accounting 4 (1992, Spring), pp. 63–68. Full Text via CrossRef

Mail-Room Policy Recommendations

Park University Mail service Department is situated in the underground of Parkville Campus. It is a body that is responsible for providing students and faculties with mail boxes. At Park University, it is required of both students and faculties to have a mail box on campus so as to know the recipient of incoming packages. They also offer work opportunities for students who are looking for a job on campus. My focus for this report will be on the employees. As an employee, mail-room is known for its diligence and hard work among the employees. Each employee tends to provide students, staff and faculties the best services and however, they make sure that their needs are met. Complaints was received from the University concerning the poor and ineffective services provided by this department but I find this disgruntling because each mailroom employees put in their effort in doing what was taught to them by their supervisors and doing their job accurately and effectively. I conducted a research using articles from other resources on mail rooms and my major focus will be on the mail-room employees and the importance of complaint avoidance from the University. I also interviewed one of my co-workers about the problems mail-room encounter and what should be done in order to elude them in the future. As a result, I found out that separation of duties among the employees, Effective communication, Effective supervisions, Punctuality and Employee training are the key components of avoiding mistakes, and complaints. The above mentioned are the alternate solutions that should be applied by the employees. There are several Departments at Park University and one of the departments that I conducted my research on was Park University Mail Services. Park University mail services aim at providing the highest quality and most efficient services to their customers. In my report, my main focus was on the employees. Employees at mail-room are responsible for performing a variety of generally routine tasks, such as receiving packages from different courier services, Entering data into the system, Forwarding student's mail, sorting mail, preparing mail for distribution and preparing mail for machine processing. The objective of these employees is to meet ensure that excellence services are provided to the students, faculty and staff and as well to make sure that they perform their tasks as employees accurately. There are numerous amounts of employees who work at the mail services and yet complaints have been made regarding the poor efficiency and lower productivity by these employees. As an employee, this department is the most hardworking department but there are some problems that need to be addressed and this will help increase productivity in the department. My duty as an employee is to put in my best and make sure that I assist in processing mail, entering data into the system and make sure that metered mails are taken out on time. In my findings concerning the poor efficiency and low productivity, the problem they encounter embroils non separation of duties which makes the employees reluctant to work because everyone does a little or no work at all and this has been an issue that Park U mail room faces and reversing these issues needs to be put into consideration by the supervisor. Moreover, ineffective communication, non-punctuality at work and inadequate supervision contributed to the problems they face as well. No amount of work could be achieved with all these issues and these issues could also ruin the reputation of the department. After considering these issues, I looked at ways that will help resolve the problems which would be further discussed. The purpose of my research is to provide subsequent solutions to the problems we experience at work and the importance of mistake avoidance in the future. The following illustrates my conducted research: 1. To determine the solution to our problems, we need to change how we communicate at work because communication is very important at the work. †¢ I used an article from 2012 which talks about effective communication at workplace. †¢ I also referenced a textbook from my management class that discusses on the importance of communication among the employee members. 2. Again, I research on the importance of separation of duties among employee members. †¢ I used an article from 2012 about separation of duties among the employees. 3. I also researched on the importance of supervision at workplace and I found an article from Ebsco by Jenkinson & Hilary on the importance and benefits of supervision and this article explore the concept of supervision and its implementation within a 4. Finally, after analyzing the researched information, I conducted a recommendation 5. Punctuality is another way of resolving the issues we encounter at the mail-room. Effective communication is very important most especially at the workplace because it provides the employees abilities to work well and to avoid inaccuracies. From my work experience at the mailroom, I observed that ineffective communication has been a major problem and this has led to so many mistakes. At times, we find it difficult to ask questions about either what we don't understand that involves shipping international packages or questions of which department to put the letter mails which they sometimes end up in a wrong departmental mail box number. According to an article published in Sept 2012, Indian Stream Research journal, it illustrates the importance of effective communication at workplace. Effective workplace communication is essential to the organizations' success. â€Å"Our communication skills help us to understand not just words; we share meaning, emotion, feelings and attitude, in a fundamental drive to communicate. This emphasizes the process of coming to understand and share each other's point of view effectively (Satpathy, 2012). † Furthermore, communication is an act of exchanging information. It is used to inform command, instruct, influence and persuade people (Rue & Byars, 2009). Effective communication at the workplace creates a way to deal effectively with customers and co-workers. Thus, this needs to apply in the everyday life of the employees at the mail-room as this help avoid making further mistakes in mails handling and will also increase productivity. Separation of duties is another key component of getting mails done in a very fast manner. In Berkeley News article about separation of duties, it is a powerful internal control and its objective is to make sure that duties are assigned to individuals in a manner that no one individuals can control a process or work from the start to the finish (Webmaster, 2011). Every Tom, Dick, and Harry infrequently makes mistakes and no individual is perfect and thus Separation of duties provides a complementary check by another individual. By assigning each employee a task such as helping customers at the window, forwarding undergraduate student mails, processing incoming and outgoing mails, receiving packages and sending email to students, faculty and staff about the arrival of their packages will help in getting the work done on time and efficiently. Apart from Park U, other universities and organizations use separation of duties at their workplace and this allows an opportunity for someone to catch an error before a transaction is fully executed based on potentially erroneous data. In addition, having adequate separation of duties diminishes the ‘opportunity' factor that might encourage an employee to embezzle although there is no such at the mail-room. I strongly suggest that we apply this method at our workplace so as to lessen employees reluctant to work and expecting one person to do the job. Poor Supervision leads to massive mistakes and thus should be avoided by the supervisors. Rather, supervisors at the mail-room should supervise their employees constantly and ensure that they are performing their tasks perfectly. According to the authors of Youth and Services article, they article explores the concept of supervision and its implementation within a work environment. The article describes and explores a process of staff development facilitated which involved providing supervision training to a group of new work practitioners (Jenkinson, 2009). However, supervising employees on a regular basis is very crucial at the mail-room because of the amount of work the employees do and how they put in their effort to avoid making errors. For example, the new employees at the office should be monitored constantly by our supervisors and also assist them by answering questions asked by the new employees. Punctuality is one of the mail-room policies and nonetheless employees always fail to abide by this policy. Being punctual to work has not only being a major problem among Park U mail-room employees but also Rockefeller University struggles with the same issue of punctuality among their work study employees. Punctuality is one of the key basic of knowing a strong worker and how dedicated he or she is to job. Many at times, we tussle with waking up in the morning and making decisions of whether or not to report to work and by the time we make this decision, we found our ourselves 15 minutes to work. One of our obligations as employees is to be punctual at work and to assist our customers with their needs of either mailing or receiving packages and also to ensure that we assist them to their satisfaction. As complained by the university, it is required of every employee to report to their respective work at least 5 minutes early prior to their time of work. Therefore, employees at the mail-room should abide the rules. As a conclusion, it has been proven that the mentioned issues in the beginning are very important and therefore should be taken seriously by the employees to avoid errors and further complaints by the University. As an employee, mail-room is known for its diligence and hard work among the employees. Each employee tends to provide students, staff and faculties the best services and however, they make sure that their needs are met. Thus, we should consider these issues we encounter in the office and make reformation as this would help prevent further complaints by either our supervisor or by the university.

Creative and Critical Thinking Questions Assignment

Creative and Critical Thinking Questions - Assignment Example Do the right and left hemispheres have interchanging roles? What are the functions of the four lobes? What is the best way to categorize visual memory and analysis? What are the differences of functions among the four lobes? Is there a functional relationship between thalamus and hypothalamus? What does the delusion of consciousness mean? When a person is intellectually analyzing a situation, which part of the brain is majorly utilized? How can a person understand that a part of the brain responsible for understanding that something is wrong with it? What happens in the cortex as it inhibits the sexual urges towards a mother? What is the best diagnosis to know a person suffering from Oedipus Complex of Freud? What did Ramachandran imply when he said that the brain can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space (Ramachandran 00:11)? How can a person make sense out of not being able to even recognize his or herself? What part of the brain’s lobes is responsible for interpret ation and auditory reception? What process does the brain take to separate auditory and visual senses?

Failure as an effective teacher Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Failure as an effective teacher - Essay Example It is a tricky fact to realize, but a simple example makes this fact easily comprehensible. As babies, none of us were able to make our step without a number of attempts and failures preceding our ultimate success of walking with a sense of pride. As children we never used to think too much about the failures that we underwent, because we were too busy to think about failures due to our thirst for success, i.e. the ability to walk. As we reflect on it today, we realize that our several attempts and failures to walk were merely stepping stones to our success in achieving it. In the process of achieving our success, we also gained some essential experience which led us to our success, and such experience was caused by our failures in the attempts. Therefore, it is an essential fact of life that failure is the most effective teacher one can get in one’s life, which ultimately leads one to success. Failure is the best and most effective teacher in life, because one can reach the ultimate success through the experience that one gains in every failure of life. Life is not a bed of roses and is, of course, a mixture of failures and successes. The real winner in life is the one who can accept this reality and makes use of the failures as stepping stones to success. It is through embracing failures wholeheartedly and learning from such experiences that one achieves success in life. The attitude of Thomas Alva Edison, who said â€Å"I have not failed; I’ve just found 10,000 ways that won’t work†, is what we require to learn from the great teacher called failure and experience. Although failure may seem to be a harsh teacher sometimes, it will ultimately prove to be the most effective teacher who not only leads one to success, but also provides the vital experiences in life. Failure and success are like two sides of the coin and we should consider failure as a teacher who can guide us to success. As aforementioned,

Ethics in the 21st Century Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethics in the 21st Century - Research Paper Example nity and reliance among the populace from all regions, is depicted as being ambiguous or disastrous in the way of life and morals that previously established civilizations. Humankind is far from attaining the resolutions required to deal with the trans-boundary matters and setbacks that come with the growing global population. On the other hand, what appears positive is that the states of such a community require reflections on the essential facets necessary to uphold a quiet and useful community (Ethics for the 21st Century, 2001). Whereas a small community requires only a little comprehension and agreement on the governing rules and foundations on a directing set of fundamental standards to guide the process; a global community has no prevailing constitution, principles or mores that could serve as a reference. What is deficient is a global organization for governance and an ethical structure as its reference. On a global scale, this link between ethics and governance can be heard effectively from the United Nations. As conveyed in a speech by Mr. Kofi Annan, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the results of the current events awaken us that â€Å"perhaps more sharply than ever before, of the strains and stresses that accompany globalization and the need for shared global values and effective global institutions to underpin the global marketâ€Å" (1999). Still, the question remains: How will the pursued values be carried out, and how will its success for international governance be executed (Ethi cs for the 21st Century, 2001)? In a quest for a common ground by the global community, there must be room for proactive endeavor and intercultural exchange and discussion on ethics. The necessity for worldwide teamwork and solidarity on the ethical responses to existing problems are reflected in the different ethical schemes carried out by key intercontinental organizations. Nowadays, mankind witnesses unparalleled attempts worldwide encouraging expression on the

Improving Disneyworld Paris Financial Position and Competitiveness Assignment

Improving Disneyworld Paris Financial Position and Competitiveness - Assignment Example Euro Disney’s economic profits in the years immediately after it was launched fell far below expectations. Even though the Disney executives carefully carried out an extensive analysis of the market conditions in Europe and France, in specific, there were significant failures that happened. The problems were caused by an assortment of issues such as the wrong evaluation of market conditions and expectations about France’s future economic development, the happenings in the property market, highly priced tickets, and cultural misunderstandings. In spite of its popularity in Europe, the Disney Park in Paris has not registered as many guests as identical theme parks in America and Asia. What is evident is that there was not enough research conducted on the demographic and cultural characteristics of France, as well as the rest of the European mainland, before the launching of the theme park in 1992. There are very distinct differences between European and American culture. According to Dennis (2014), investors from the parent company, Walt Disney in America, did not take into account the fact that European customers did not have similar entertainment objectives with their American counterparts.It was presumed that customers would come to Disneyworld Paris from all over Europe. However, there was no research into factors such as the diversity of European cultures, the definitions that each of these cultures attributes to the concept of entertainment, and the aspect of cultural imperialism.

Super size me Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Super size me - Movie Review Example This film earned Morgan Spurlock the best director award in 2004 appreciating his personal investigation and contribution into issues associated with health hazards caused by fast foods. In the 30 days in which Spurlock subjects himself to a steady diet, his normal equilibrium and fit body undergo ugly and dark changes; his cholesterol increases dramatically, grows so fat, his organs develop beatings, and his days are characterized by mood swings, headaches, narrowed sexual energy, and addiction symptoms. The outcome of the film is a too obvious gimmick that cannot sustain any documentary features. This, Spurlock achieves by spending most parts of the film probing on subtle means that the fast food industry has wormed its way into the young children hearts and school lunchrooms. Making himself the subject of the documentary he was covering, Spurlock targets the commercial food industry as his main subject. The outcome of those 30 days was a sure proof of the mental and physical effec ts of easting fast food. The film also targets the American’s food culture through its politics and school corporation. The movie â€Å"Super Size Me† shades a different kind of light on obesity which has proved to be American’s biggest health issues (Super Size Me). The liberty value is what most American citizens value the most. They fight for the freedom of speech and freedom to work and be successful in life. However, this liberty value also involves the freedom to ruin their lives. This view is individualistic; it leaves the responsibility of each citizen’s prosperity on their heads. The worst that comes out of this situation is that it leads to a society that is selfish in which every man’s state is of no significance. This remains a critical issue to the nation as its citizens are intelligent and have a good sense in doing the right things for themselves and to those around them. This is however not the case, people have

Challenges expected and Most Surprising things in The Martian Essay

Challenges expected and Most Surprising things in The Martian - Essay Example In the novel, Weir did not depict the details of futuristic equipment that astronauts take with them on Mars. There is no absolute idea that surprises the readers. However, Mark is the last person left in chain of command who is most qualified person. Challenge is not in the strands of protagonist standing on the Mars; challenge is to make the strands more exciting and funny to read it (Scalzi). Death is expected after the departure, Red Mars and reading the back cover of book The Martin. The Martian novel sounds in parts as like the movie Armageddon. John McLane has scarified himself to ensure that asteroid does not like to turn the Earth into trivial putty; where every thing has broken down at the rate of one Gogol in a femtosecond. Nobody dies instead of it counting the potatoes and bacteria. Thanks to Jackie, who was a wonderful lady as she said â€Å"never leave me for anything ever†? Character of Mark Watney is more than I dream off for ever. Removing the vulgarity from it makes the ‘The Martian’ book better reading than any other books that reveals the living on the Mars under the non-ideal circumstances. I cannot have many expectations from reading of The Martian, because of my little interest in the space. Plot of the novel is sounded very similar like other space movies and novels, which have come out. Therefore, no difference is expected by reading it to other space narrations. It is much glad to say that one is pleasantly surprised and find difficulty in leaving the book on table.

Diversity in Criminal Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Diversity in Criminal Justice - Essay Example As a result, Arizona felt it had that right to to enhance existing federal provisions, openly enforce them, and add state misdemeanor charges to anyone found to be in violation of being in the country illegally. The law itself gave much more power to law enforcement personnel than was previously possible, which lead to much public outcry. One such provision was that individuals suspected of being an illegal immigrant could be stopped by a police officer, or other agent of the law, and asked to prove his or right to be in the state. Failure to provide such proof would be a misdemeanor in Arizona, and potentially result in federal prosecution as well. This, and several other provisions of the law, reflect a great divide in the criminal justice in America today and form the basis for this brief report. At the time that this particular bill was passed in Arizona in 2010, it was believed to be the strongest and strictest piece of immigration currently enacted to guard against illegal immigration. Part of what made the law so strong was the sweeping power that it gave to the police in their interaction with people within their jurisdiction. The law itself springs off a federal law that does require that any alien over the age of 14, and desiring to be in the country for longer 30 days, register with the federal government. Such registration provides individuals with a document that they are to have in their possession at all times, and failure to abide by this would result in being charge with a misdemeanor. Arizona added onto this law and made it a misdemeanor according to state law as well, which allowed local police the right to ascertain the immigration status of any individual stopped during a ‘lawful stop, detention, or arrest’. This right carried over to any lawfu l contact that the police might have with such an individual, regardless of

Amenorrhea Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Amenorrhea - Case Study Example This paper will discuss a case study that involves a 30-year-old female whose has secondary amenorrhea for six months. Prior to being diagnosed with the disorder, she presented with periods of irregular cycles and dysmenorrhea. Thus, the paper will discuss the pathophysiology of the disorder and it possible causes in relation to irregular cycles and dysmenorrhea. Amenorrhea is a menstrual disorder that refers to the absence of menstruation in a woman who had been previously having their normal menstrual cycle. Secondary is used to refer to menstruation that had previously occurred at least for some period but stopped for a period of six months or longer due to some reasons. In order for the woman to be diagnosed with secondary amenorrhea, they must miss their menstrual period for a period of at least three to six months without being pregnant (Heiman, 2009). The most significant contributing factors include the use of birth control pills, certain medications and stress that also have been associated to cause dysmenorrhea (painful cramping) and irregular cycles. The most common reason as to why a woman will miss their period is as a result of pregnancy. However, it should be noted that pregnancy, menopause and breastfeeding are not classified as causes of the disorder. Secondary amenorrhea is not harmful to the patients’ health as it c an be treated effectively in the majority of the cases according to the pathophysiology. Thus, it is important for the health care practitioner to address the underlying condition causing the menstrual disorder to ensure that optimal health of the woman is regained (Klein & Poth, 2013). The hypothalamus is involved in generating the gonadotropin-releasing hormones that are responsible for stimulating the pituitary gland to produce the gonadotropins i.e. the Luteinizing Hormone and Follicle- stimulating hormone into the blood stream. These gonadotropins are important in

Janis Joplin Essay Example for Free

Janis Joplin Essay Perhaps Ralph Waldo Emerson was right and may as well have referred to Janis Joplin as he was saying this quotation had he lived during Joplin’s time. With her death at a young age of 27, it had been a short-lived life the musical genius Janis Joplin had. We may not know whether or not her cousins can tell nothing about her but her life deserves to be relived and I am here to write about it. A look into the context in which she lived will help give a better understanding of how the course of her life was influenced and came to be the way it was. Janis Joplin is one of the most prominent individuals in the 1960s, an era considered to be a revolution of sorts. Beginnings On the morning of January 19, 1943, Janis Lyn was born to be the eldest child of Seth and Dorothy Joplin. It was years later that she would have younger siblings Michael and Laura making them a middle-class family composing of five members. Growing up in an industrial town called Port Arthur in Texas crowded with oil refineries, chemical plants, factories, and rows of oil-storage tanks with fumes hanging in the air, it wasn’t the best place to satisfy the brilliant and inquisitive little Janis as there wasn’t much room for activities and recreations. Although that was the case, she did well in school, having a great interest and aptitude for reading and painting. As a child, she already had a reputation for singing as one of the soloists in their church choir. According to one of her friends, she had been popular in Port Arthur as a talented and cute little girl. Janis considered her childhood as relatively pleasant. It was only at the age of fourteen, as confessed in many of her various interviews, that she felt like the world turned on her. That was the time she gained weight and had acne problems, problems which meant most than anything for teenagers. The eventual lost of her looks coincided badly with her entry to the highschool world where the popular girls were the ones with good looks and Janis just fell behind (Echols, 2000). While at the Thomas Jefferson highschool, Janis took rejection by heart (Amburn, 1993). Used to having attention on her, she started acting out and whilst she began to receive attention, she even emphasized her being different. She was determined to keep the attention on her even if it was a negative one. She became a beatnik girl who would flaunt her eccentric clothes ranging from above-the-knee skirts, black or purple tights coupled with liking unconventional and ‘different’ liberal arts and music. As Echols put it, â€Å"she was bent on becoming an eyesore, an affront to everything the townspeople believed in. Indeed, Janis was eager to defy as many social conventions as she could. This made her parents unhappy- â€Å"she just changed totally, overnight† quoting her mother Dorothy. As an underage girl, her defiant attitude was too much that one incident happened involving the police after she took a ride with her male friends who were overage. This made her even more the topic of talks and gossips around their Pleasantville of a town. She was much into music and drinking, acting as if these two things are wedded. And this always gets her into trouble. She was often sent to the counselor’s office for misbehavior and drinking (Echols, 2000). Her parents were baffled and felt helpless. Joplin’s rebellious proclivity was unwavering, she just wanted to be different and be free to express herself. Little did they know that Janis’ rebellious actions symbolize the beginning of an inevitable social revolution and an â€Å"emerging generation gap† that was about to come(Echols, 2000). The fact was: it wasn’t just Joplin; it was going to be a collective movement. The Sixties was well on its way. The Sixties†, as it is often used in popular culture by some journalists, historians and other academes, has seen many varied influential and transforming trends in culture and ideologies which can be described as nothing less than exciting, powerful, radical and even rebellious. It was a time when people are trying to break free from the rigid and conformist social norms and social constraints in search for individual freedom (Booker, 1970). It could be said that this period of history has a great impact on Janis Joplin and further influenced not only her genius but how her entire life turned out. Musical Inclination Music would eventually become a passion for Joplin. Aside from singing in their local church choir, Janis developed her musical interest further after befriending a group of outsiders as a teenager. She and this gang would listen and idolize African-American Blues artists such as Leadbelly whose album was the first she claimed she ever purchased (Echols, 2000). During highschool she continued listening to blues music and listened to other blues artists like Bessie Smith, Big Mama Thornton and Odetta. And even later on, she will begin singing blues and folks songs together with some friends, imitating the artists’ husky yet soulful voices. Amburn, 1993). She always had a gut feel about her singing ability but it wasn’t until she imitated Odetta and performed one of her songs which stunned her friends that she she confirmed, she indeed â€Å"has a voice. † Her early efforts included playing in coffee houses in their small town. Talent, Notoriety and Fame In 1963, she left for San Francisco and found herself residing in North Beach. She also ventured to other places like Venice, the Village, New York and Haight-Ashbury acquiring further experiences and experimenting on her music and creativity. It wasn’t just a year ago that she started taping her first song at a friend’s house and a year after she would record more songs with her friends Jorma Kaukonen and Martha Kaukonen providing her accompaniments. An album called Typewriter tape will be released containing seven tracks including â€Å"Long Black Train Blues,† â€Å"Nobody Knows You When Youre Down and Out,† â€Å"Typewriter Talk,† Kansas City Blues,† â€Å"Trouble In Mind,† â€Å" Hesitation Blues,† and â€Å"Daddy, Daddy, Daddy† . As the Sixties progress, various movements are emerging from the left and right. The counterculture and social revolution was spreading. A popular term emerged as the hippies, a youth movement characterized strongly by a shift towards a more liberated society. It includes the questioning groups created a movement toward liberation in society, including sexual revolution, questioning of authority and government, fighting for the freedom and rights of the marginalized groups including Negroes, women, homosexuals, and minorities. The use of marijuana, heroine, LSD and various others drugs and listening to psychedelic music were also rampant. Janis would not be left behind and took part in these movements. Joplin’s waywardness continued well into those years. Around that time, she increased her drug use and took on a reputation as a frequent heroine user and a thrill-freak (Amburn, 1993). She was also heavy on alcohol and other intoxicants and even engaged in sexual high. In 1965, she was described as skeletal, even emaciated due to the effects of her amphetamine use (Amburn, 1993). For some time, she was convinced by her friends to become sober and to refrain from drug use. An old friend and then manager Chet Helms of a group called Big Brother was attracted by Joplin’s bluesy voice. On June 4, 1966, Joplin officially joined the band. Their first public performance was in San Francisco at the Avalon Ballroom. Her drug use was kept at bay with the help of her friends who she lived within a communal apartment (Friedman, 1992). They signed a deal with Mainstream Records on the 23rd of August of 1966. A year after, the band released their debut album by Columbia Records. Joplin and her band gradually gained fame after several follow-up performances including those in Monterey Pop Festival, appearances in television such as The Dick Cavett Show. She received positive reviews from various magazines labelling her as a powerful singer and a staggering woman of rock and roll. Eventually, she would leave the Big Brother band and went for a solo career and would later form a band called the Kozmic Blues and another group, which she would call her as her own called the Full Tilt Boogie Band. After breaking up again with the band, she recorded several songs which would be released after her death and would become the highest-selling album of her career. It included the best hit single †Me and Bobby McGee†, a cover of Kris Kristofferson’s who had been her ex-lover. Janis Joplin died on October 4, 1970 at the age of 27 years. Legacy Janis Joplin can be considered as the Queen of Rock and Roll in the late 1960s. She was a music icon which would influence the music scene in the years to come. She was an established female star who had success in a male-dominant music scene. Fans and musical experts alike would consider her songs as immortal and contiunes to influence modern day music and artists. She also made contributions to the fashion industry. The way she dressed herself had been another avenue for her self-expression. In interview after interviews, she would update the media of her latest fashion statement from her clothes, to her hair styles, hair accessories, body decorations, and body accessories. She would also affect the movie industry influencing and inspiring movie directors, actors and actresses such as Better Midler especially in the 1979 film entitled The Rose which would garner her an academy nomination for her performance as Janis Joplin. Other films were also produced based on her life including Gospel According to Janis. A musical play was composed in the 1990s, which will then win a praise and be lauded together with the outstanding performances of the artists who would play Janis. She would also receive posthumous awards including the Grammy Lifetime Achievment and the induction to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In the arts, some of her personal artifacts including the Porsche she owned were displayed in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Musuem Exhibition which will serve as a testimony to the psychedelic era dubbed as â€Å"The Summer of Love- Art of the Psychedelic Era†. This made people reminisce to that nostalgic and definitely not-forgotten era of the human history. Truly, Janis Joplin was a genius not only of her time but her genius continues to live and influence various industried today.

Triple Threat Criticism Essay Example for Free

Triple Threat Criticism Essay Each of the short stories â€Å"Happy Endings†, â€Å"A Sorrowful Woman†, and â€Å"The Story of an Hour† express the central idea that women are confined and identified by their roles as wives or mothers by society. The authors’ goal of these short stories is to portray modern marriages, to help people be conscious to womens liberalism, and to instruct people not to focus on the endings of stories, but the middle portions. Margaret Atwood, Gail Godwin, and Kate Chopin develop these ideas by utilizing plot, character development, and setting. Atwood’s â€Å"Happy Endings† uses a lack of plot to show how even though the middle parts of life can be different, the endings are always and inevitably the same. In her story, Atwood shows the diverse relationships between men and women, but through every situation, both die. The same thing happens in Chopin’s and Godwin’s stories. While both protagonists start off as committed and loving women dedicated to their family, personal torment eventually lead both of them to death. Both women sit near windows in their rooms and watch the world outside wishing they could be at peace with themselves and find happiness in their relationships. Chopin associates the window and all the lively things outside the window to the freedom of Mrs. Mallard’s new widow status, while Godwin represents the window as a negative object. Also, it is ironic that outside of the windows it is spring, when both of the stories are depressingly gloomy. In â€Å"Happy Endings,† Atwood explains what life is about. She proclaims that plots are a beginning, middle, and an end; â€Å"a what and a what and a what† (Atwood 628). Life is a formula: two people meet; they have jobs, sex, kids, hobbies, illness, and of course, they die. Atwood gives all the examples: older and younger, doctor and nurse, but it is the same formula. Atwood also minimally structures â€Å"Happy Endings,† like an essay, instead of a story. She has different scenarios from A to F, all including the same undetailed, flat characters, but with the same end to prove that no matter what the beginning or middle is, the ending is always the same. The author also chooses to use the most generic names possible, Mary and John, to flatten the characters even further. Atwood repeats the words â€Å"stimulating and challenging† throughout the text. These words are used to describe the character’s jobs, their sex life, and their hobbies. This repetition in diction emphasizes the ordinary and mundane of each characteristic. In storyline F, Atwood speaks directly to the reader. She writes, â€Å"If you think this is all too bourgeois, make John a revolutionary and Mary a counterespionage agent and see how far that gets you,† implying the pursuits are the same, and the characters are unimportant (Atwood 293). Atwood’s audience is everyone, but mostly the people who focus more on the plot of life, than the how and why. In â€Å"A Sorrowful Woman,† Godwin uses character development to drive her story. She writes about predominantly flat and unnamed characters: the man, child, woman. The woman is the only one closest to a round character. She is quirky, for she makes the statement â€Å"vertical bra,† but otherwise her lines are manipulative and predictable. Godwin opens with â€Å"Once upon a time† (Godwin 39) to emphasize how unrealistic the story really is. For example, the man in the story has an exaggeratedly amicable, agreeable nature towards his wife and never challenges her. To make it clear, he repeats the words â€Å"I understand† throughout the story. Godwin includes that the nanny is ugly to emphasize that there is no sexual replacement of the woman. The boy represents innocence. The boy’s last line, â€Å"Can we eat the turkey for supper? † reiterates that the woman’s role in life was through her duties. Godwin uses symbolism when she writes about the woman writing a poem: First, the woman has all her responsibilities and duties, but since she stops doing them, she does not know what else to do. Secondly, the woman tries to write a sonnet that has rules on how you can write it, but then she decides to write free verse, except since there are no rules, she does not know what to write. Godwin also uses the nanny to contrast with the woman; the woman hates her duties and responsibilities, while the nanny enjoys them because she gets paid and it is her choice. Also, she distinguishes both of them by the use of the woman in a white, dull room, and the nanny putting the boys colorful pictures on the walls. â€Å"†¦the child’s gray eyes,† the gray hand-knitted sweaters. The overall effect of repeating the color gray makes the story seem dull and tired. In â€Å"The Story of an Hour,† Chopin uses metaphors and concrete details to develop the central idea that identity is a stereotypical construct. She associates the open window and all the lively things outside it to the freedom of Mrs. Mallard’s new widow status: â€Å"†¦the tops of trees that were all aquiver with the new spring life. The delicious breath of rain was in the air†¦ countless sparrows were twittering in the eaves† (Chopin 15) to compliment that Mrs. Mallard is thinking optimistically now that she knows her husband is dead. Mrs. Mallard expresses her feelings about her recently distinguished marriage with words of being liberated: â€Å"Body and soul free! † Chopin also uses setting to emphasize how women are identified: in the public area of the house, she is named as â€Å"Mrs. Mallard,† but when she goes to her room she is â€Å"Louise. † Chopin ends â€Å"The Story of an Hour† with stating, â€Å"When the doctors came they said Mrs. Mallard had died from heart disease – of joy that kills† (16); sardonically, she is referring to the family thinking that Mrs. Mallard died from the joy of seeing her husband alive, when in reality she died from distinguishing that she is not free any longer. Mrs. Mallard’s death is foreshadowed early in the story when the author mentions that the wife has a heart problem. In all three stories the female characters are unhappy and they eventually die. The authors are feminists in how they condemn men and marriages with how they trap and identify women by society. Atwood, Godwin, and Chopin illustrate this idea with plot, character development, and setting. The authors wrote these three short stories to portray modern marriages, to help people be conscious to womens liberalism, and to explain that the ending of a story is not important, but the middle is. Works Cited Chopin, Kate. â€Å"The Story of an Hour. † The Bedford Introduction to Literature 9th Edition. Meyer, Michael. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2011. 15-16. Print. Godwin, Gail. â€Å"A Sorrowful Woman. † The Bedford Introduction to Literature 9th Edition. Meyer, Michael. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2011. 39-41. Print. Atwood, Margaret. â€Å"Happy Endings. † The Bedford Introduction to Literature 9th Edition. Meyer, Michael. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s Press, 2011. 624-626. Print.

Multiple Questions On Issues Of Sustainability Environmental Sciences Essay

Multiple Questions On Issues Of Sustainability Environmental Sciences Essay Suppose you are taking a course in Strategic Sustainable Development. One of your colleagues, who works for a company as a Director of Sustainable Development, calls you up and asks what you are learning about. Please list five (5) broad/overarching concepts that you could use to describe the core of Strategic Sustainable Development. (5 points) Note: it is not necessary to describe them, only list them. The FSSD is a generic framework for planning and decision-making for achieving success in a system of socio-ecological sustainability. Based on scientifically-based principles (discussed below) and systems thinking, the FSSD supports decision-making in conditions of high complexity, recognizing the interdependence of the natural world and society. It can serve as compass to guide society towards a sustainable future; a strategy for sustainability can be developed which links scientific knowledge to decision-making. The FSSD has five distinct, non-overlapping levels: system, success, strategic guidelines, actions and tools. By using the FSSD together with a principles-based definition of sustainability, it becomes possible to judge how actions can be strategically planned and prioritized to move an organization and society towards sustainability. Based on a common language and understanding in order to facilitate cooperation, to  communicate effectively, build consensus and ultimate ly move toward a vision, the FSSD provides a shared mental model of sustainability. Because it uses an upstream approach, the FSSD anticipates and avoids problems before they occur, rather than reacting to their downstream effects. B Scientific foundations of FSSD The FSSD is a scientifi ­cally rigorous Framework; scientific foundations (e.g. laws of thermodynamics, energy, entropy, photosynthesis, biogeochemical cycles, interdependency of species, system dynamics, cyclic principle and biogeochemical cycles) are used to derive the basic principles of ecological and social sustainability. C Metaphor of the Cylinder and the Funnel In its whole-systems view, the FSSD uses the metaphor of the Cylinder and the Funnel to illustrate the flawed interpretations and trends about current reality, problems with our current industrial system and the challenges of sustainability. The funnel helps to visualize the economic, social and environmental pressures that impinge on society as natural resources and ecosystem services are depleted and decline while global population grows in number and there is an ever increasing consumption of those resources and heightened demand for those services. D Four Sustainability Principles (SP) and the Model of Nine Universal Human Needs The four, first-order Sustainability Principles (SP) of the FSSD clearly spell out what ecological and social conditions must exist in order for a society and therefore, for development, to be sustainable now and in the future. Understood within SP 4 is a model of the nine universal human needs as defined by the Chilean economist Manfred Max-Neef, as well as the interrelationships between human needs, wants, satisfiers, and pathologies/poverties. E Backcasting and the ABCD Methodology Backcasting from sustainability principles (planning from success) is a tool used in the FSSD. First a vision of success is defined and then a gap analysis, using the lens of sustainability is performed, which then helps define strategies and prioritized actions that work toward closing the gap. In the ABCD Methodology First step (A) understanding how to apply Backcasting from Principles to the system for analyses of step (B) current practices and step (C) solutions/visions and (D) prioritized actions to create a strategy to achieve success. In step (D), actions are prioritized to ensure that all selected actions are  (1) moving in the right direction (towards sustainability), (2)  flexible platforms that avoid dead-end investments, and (3) good business decisions (i.e. offer an  adequate return on investment). In  Chapter 1 of  Strategic Leadership towards Sustainability, the author makes frequent mention use of the words systematic and systematically to describe difference between the cylinder paradigm and the funnel paradigm.   For example: In the cylinder paradigm: it is believed that socio / ecological impacts come and go. In the funnel paradigm: in reality society is on a downhill course the very conditions of social / ecological welfare are being systematically undermined. In the cylinder paradigm: it is believed that social / ecological impacts are isolated events. In the funnel paradigm: in reality social / ecological impacts are interconnected through systematic errors of societal design. Why are the words systematically and systematic important to make the distinction between the two paradigms? (4 points) The problem of unsustainability (as represented by the funnel metaphor) is that the negative impacts we see from our unsustainable way of living are due to an underlying systemic error of societal design that will continue to worsen. In the current model of industrial organization and neoclassical economics, society at large is organized in such a way that the environmental impacts pollution, loss of biodiversity, greenhouse gas emissions etc. will continue to increase as long as society continues on the same paradigm of development. As long as the systemic errors continue, the conditions for ecological and social survival and prosperity will continue to decline systematically. The funnel metaphor represents a systems theory way of thinking, which understands the principle functioning of the ecological and social systems, recognizing the interdependence of the natural world and society. Why were the System Conditions developed according to the criteria of (i) necessary, (ii) sufficient, (iii) distinct, (iv) general, (v) concrete and (vi) science-based? (2 points) In order to be successful and widely accepted as legitimate and valid, the system conditions must be necessary (required in order to achieve the planning objective, i.e., sustainability) and sufficient (to cover all aspects of the objective), distinct (to enable comprehension and facilitate development of indicators for monitoring and assessment) general (to structure all societal activities relevant to sustainability and make sense for all stakeholders),concrete (to guide problem solving and actions, serve as a guide in problem analysis and solutions ), and science-based. (proven, scientifically robust model, based on systems thinking and scientific foundations (e.g. laws of thermodynamics, energy, entropy, photosynthesis, biogeochemical cycles, interdependency of species, system dynamics, cyclic principle and biogeochemical cycles) from which are derived the basic principles of ecological and social sustainability). What does it mean to be strategic? (1 point) Part of a decision-making process in which choices are made, a strategy is a plan of prioritizing actions in order to achieve a particular goal. Once an organization has established its purpose/mission/vision of an idealized future, it can select policies and actions within that strategy to move an organization towards achieving that goal. If we have a clearly principled view of a future sustainable society, then we have a perspective on which we can strategize base our decisions on strategic guidelines which direct us on the best way to proceed in order to achieve success in the system, i.e. sustainability. In the FSSD, together with a principles-based definition of sustainability, it becomes possible to judge how actions can be strategically planned and prioritized to move an organization and society towards sustainability. If each of the actions below were done in an ongoing manner, which Sustainability Principle would be affected? Please fill in the blank with the primary Sustainability Principle that the action contributes to, i.e. 1, 2, 3, or 4 (Write one SP only for each answer). (0.5 point each, 5 points total) ___3___ overharvesting of fish ___3___ development of fertile land into urban infrastructure ___2___ release of antibiotics into rivers ___1___ leaching of mined cadmium from batteries ___2___ release of methane from cows (if one considers that a concentration of methane occurs because of a human activity herding cattle to support a meat based diet in excess of the natural ecosystems capacity to absorb the excessive waste this produces) ___2___ fertilizer run-off that leads to the overproduction of algae in nearby lakes ___4 __ lack of development of a healthcare system ___1___ leaking of uranium from mining operations ___3___ extraction of groundwater at rates that exceed natural replenishment ___4___ unsafe working conditions The Brundtland definition of sustainable development is to meet the needs of today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (Brundtland, 1987). Explain how this includes the concept of ecological sustainability. (2 points) Though it is not explicitly stated, ecological sustainability is a key component of the Brundtland definition; all aspects of human existence and survival the ability to meet human needs are integrated with the sustainability of viable ecological systems. In a systems model of thinking, what happens in one part of a system affects every other part. The Brundtland definition is adequate in some ways, but does not give guidance as to the design of such a society or how to achieve this sustainability. It is not specific enough nor does it have the simplicity of the FSSD with the four, first-order Sustainability Principles (SP) which clearly spell out what ecological and social conditions must exist in order for a society and therefore, for development, to be sustainable now and in the future. In the sustainable society, nature is not subject to systematically increasing: concentrations of substances extracted from the Earths crust (such as fossil fuels or metals), concentrations of substances produced by society (such as chemical compounds, CFCs, insecticides, and endocrine disrupters), degradation by physical means (such as clear-cutting of forests and over-fishing) Moreover, in such a (sustainable) society, people are not subject to conditions that systematically: 4. undermine their capacity to meet their needs (such as from the abuse of political and economic power). The FSSD asks upstream at the first approximation in the chain of cause-and-effect, what are the primary mechanisms of human activities which set off unsustainable impacts downstream? The FSSD recognizes that downstream impacts are rooted in upstream errors of societal design and operation. All ecological and social sustainability problems which society faces today can be attributed to violations of one or more of these four mechanisms, expressed by the 4 SP. If the society seeks to meet its needs now and in the future, it must conform to the ecological constraints of the first three Sustainability principles, and conform to the societal constraints of the fourth Sustainability Principle, then the resources must be enough to succeed, in meeting those needs. Please describe the concepts of a tool and a framework, what they are useful for and the difference between them (3 points) A tool is a device that is necessary to, or expedites, a task; it can also be a procedure or process used for a specific purpose. A framework is a basic conceptual structure, a shared mental model, for moving an organization towards achieving a goal that it has established. A framework should inform the selection and use of tools to support the framework; tools should be selected and used as needed at each stage. Within the structure established by a framework, tools are often used to facilitate actions, gain necessary information, monitor actions and measure progress. The purpose is to ensure that actions are chosen strategically, so that the goal (success) in the system is achieved. In the FSSD, tools is the fifth level of the framework. When backcasting from principles of success, a tool of the FSSD, is combined with another FSD tool, the ABCD methodology, together they can be used as facilitation tool for analysis, brainstorming sessions, learning, vision development, program design, leadership and change. In planning for sustainable development, examples of other useful tools include indicators, management systems, and life cycle assessments. If your colleague asks you whether this Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development (FSSD) is better than other tools or concepts in sustainable development, how would you respond? (2 points) With a science-based definition of socio-ecological sustainability, based on systems thinking with four basic first-order Sustainability Principles the FSSD is a very effective planning methodology; it can be used for assessing current conditions, visioning an ideal future, and developing effective strategies and prioritized actions to achieve that vision. FSSD is perhaps a unique framework in that it is, almost by definition, a simple (understandable) yet comprehensive approach that encourages dialogue, consensus-building and systems-thinking, all of which create the conditions which can facilitate profound change. The FSSD provides a process of continual learning that incorporates other methods, tools, and concepts into a shared, structured overview. By its upstream approach understanding the broader system within which problems occur as well as define the principles which govern success in that system it becomes an invaluable mental model. It can address those problems at the source and turn those problems into opportunities for innovation, organizational change and success. When a practitioner understands the 5 level FSSD, the 4 Sustainability Principles, Back-casting and the ABCD methodology, and knows how to apply them, that practitioner has a very powerful guide to navigate the many complexities of living sustainably in a comp lex system. a) Please discuss the difference between a fundamental human need, and satisfiers for those needs. Give 2 examples of each. (4 points) The Chilean economist Manfred Max-Neef presents a different framework for New Human Development. He stresses that it is important that human needs are understood as a system i.e. they are interrelated and interactive. Max-Neef considers that human needs are finite, few and classifiable (as distinct from the conventional notion that wants are infinite and insatiable). He defines these fundamental human needs: subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, recreation (in the sense of leisure, time to reflect, or idleness), creation, identity and freedom. Max-Neef considers that these needs are constant through all human cultures and across historical time periods, but what does change over time and between cultures are the satisfiers the way these needs are satisfied. In this model, any unmet human need generates pathology poverty. In his view, society today is experiencing collective pathologies because of the scale and dimension of unsatisfied, unmet human needs . Need: Satisfier: Subsistence Healthy balanced diet versus one of high fat, high calorie, no nutrients which negatively impacts ecosystems Leisure Time to reflect/dream versus watching violent television passively for long hours b) Explain how this concept is helpful for sustainable development. (2 points) Max-Neefs definition of what human beings need, and what motivates them, is fundamentally different from the currently held notion. If decision-makers operated according to his assumptions rather than those of most economists, then the choices they would make would be radically different. Instead of using GNP which only quantifies the economic growth of things and an ever-growing demand for finite natural resources, development must be about people and meeting their fundamental human needs, not about material objects or money. For the purpose of sustainable development, this presents a radically different way of thinking: a new indicator which quantifies the improvement in peoples lives is required and the best development process is the one that will ensure the maximum increase in this indicator of improvement of peoples lives. With the Max-Neef model, sustainable development becomes fully human-centric. In the past, the fourth system condition for sustainability was worded: In a sustainable society, resources are used fairly and efficiently in order to meet basic human needs worldwide. Currently, it reads: In a sustainable society, people are not subject to conditions that systematically undermine their ability to meet their needs. What is the significance of the change in wording and what does this mean for planning? (2 points) The second wording is less ambiguous and focuses more on the human versus resource component of the principle. As previously stated in the first wording, it is not clear how one quantifies what is a fair and efficient  use  of resources as well as what exactly are the basic needs worldwide. Who decides? How is this defined? Also, the phrase is passive, it is not clear who meets the needs of humans worldwide? In contrast, in the second wording, people themselves decide what they need in order to meet their needs. In this second wording, conditions are ensured so that each person meets the needs that he/she defines. Another key point is the inclusion of the word systematically which emphasizes the larger, holistic view a systems thinking theory of the condition of sustainability, and how conditions are created or are undermined. Since the focus is now on how humans define and meet their own needs, planning must focus on the users, not the resources, as well as  utilize a systems approach  to analyzing, creating and maintaining sustainable conditions. Consider the following 2 sentences: Organization XYZ contributes to the violation of System Condition One byà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Organization XYZ violates System Condition One byà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Which wording would you use in a sustainability analysis of an organization? Why? (2 points) The wording of a) is more appropriate to be used in an organizations sustainability analysis since it is understood that contributing implies that other organizations are also capable of contributing, and that the behavior of any one organizations is part of a larger system of behavior which can have an impact on the 4SP. Wording a) recognizes that Organization XYZ is not a sole actor in violating the SP, there are others who also contribute. Wording b) is too all-inclusive no single organization can violate the 4SP by itself. The first step an organization must make in order to perform a sustainability analysis of itself is to translate the sustainability principles into their own organizational context. With an understanding that the 4SP are minimal requirements for sustainability, it is necessary to evaluate how it is already violating these 4SP and act first to be restorative, and then act to comply with the 4SP. If an organization does not want to cause more problems into the system, then a logical and ethically relevant rewording of the 4SP would be to add not contribute in to the phrasing of the 4SP, which then gives guidance on how to proceed towards achieving sustainability in compliance with the 4SP. Module 2: Applications of Strategic Sustainable Development 35 points Organizational Learning and Change a) Please describe the concept of Creative Tension and how it can be useful within Organizational Learning and Change towards sustainability. (2points) According to Peter Senge, creative tension is the central principle of personal mastery and a key component in personal as well as organizational learning and change. Creative tension comes from a gap analysis rather like the one in backcasting from principles of success, but on personal (or can be, on an organizational) scale. Creative tension comes from our clearly having a vision of where we want to be in contrast to an accurate assessment of our current reality which does not reach that vision. Awareness of that gap between the vision and the existing reality causes that creative tension, which is the source of all creative energy. In a situation of Organizational Learning and Change towards sustainability, leadership to achieve success in the system starts with a vision of ecological and social sustainability in contrast to current unsustainable reality; this gap causes the creative tension, which can motivate personal and organizational change in order to alter that unacceptable reality. b) Briefly describe the personal-organizational dynamic and give two reasons why it is important to consider when you are planning to move strategically towards sustainability. (3 points) There are two ways to resolve creative tension, either by raising current reality toward the vision, which requires change, or by lowering the vision toward current reality. Individuals, groups, and organizations that learn how to work with creative tension are better able to use this energy to move reality more reliably toward their visions. Leading through creative tension is different than solving problems. In problem solving, the energy for change comes from attempting to get away from an aspect of current reality that is undesirable; the motivation for change is extrinsic. With creative tension, the energy for change comes from the vision, from what we want to create, juxtaposed with current reality. With creative tension, the motivation is intrinsic and therefore, more powerful and transformative. c) What are some of the organizational and perceptual challenges that organizations need to overcome when transitioning towards sustainability? (4 points) Some of the organizational and perceptual challenges that organizations would need to overcome when transitioning towards sustainability include: A failure to grasp the fundamental paradigm shift that sustainable development requires. By maintaining long-held mental models, organizations fail to fundamentally alter the ways in which they produce goods and services. Such organizations believe that sustainability simply involves better controls, marginal improvements, or other efficiencies within their existing, linear business model, strictly following government mandates. Such patriarchal thinking leads to a false sense of security and personal responsibility for sustainable behavior is reduced. Many individuals have the sense that the challenge of sustainability is not something that they can resolve that someone else is taking care of it (or not). Unfortunately, it can be a belief that having a special Green committee or a particular person who is indicated as being responsible for recycling, advertising Earth Day events, etc. absolves each individual from actively engaging in addressing sustainability.  Ã‚  Therefore th ere is lacking both a  sense of  personal concern and responsibility as well as a lack of perceiving that we each have the ability to make a difference, to bring about these necessary changes Organizations do not incorporate sustainability in their core policies and procedures. When an organization maintains a Silo approach to addressing issues related to environmental and social concerns, sustainability is not integrated into all aspects of the organizations activities. Lack of a clear vision about sustainability which is limited to only complying with required governmental mandates, perpetuating the status quo, i.e., business as usual. Lacking a systems theory understanding of what causes unsustainability; there is a focus on symptoms and not the root causes of the problems. Lack of sufficient information that is clear and can easily be understood which explains the negative aspects of the current linear production paradigm and the neoclassical economic model which have brought us to the current unsustainable conditions. Lack of adequate mechanisms for the personal/organizational learning and change which are necessary in order to alter current held, engrained notions. 13. Urban Planning and Land Use a) Suppose you had the opportunity to talk to a member of the American Institution of Architects. She knows you are taking the SL1401 distance course and would like to know your overarching opinion on the 10 principles of Living Communities that the Institution has developed. What would you say to her? (3 points) Architecture, landscape architecture and urban design certainly can influence and improve the quality of life in our nations communities, and while the AIAs 10 Principles of Living Communities (AIA 10 Pr.) are commendable, they are not as inclusive as the FSSD and the four Sustainability Principles. Although the AIA 10 Pr. can reduce a communitys contribution to the violation of the four SP to a certain degree, it does not provide a consistent, organized structure for the achievement of societal and ecological sustainability, in contrast to the FSSD which does. As a tool, the AIA 10 Pr. mainly focuses on reducing contributions to violations of the first three SP through the utilization of alternative energy, reuse and recycling of materials, implementation of energy and water efficiency programs, etc. AIA 10 Pr. partially tackles the SP4, but it does not explicitly address economic or social issues, nor does it address human fundamental needs (such as protection, participation, understanding, etc.). In the FSSD, the AIA 10 Pr. can be used as one of several tools which can be used to complement each other. When such complementary tools are used together, they are more comprehensive and powerful, allowing an organization to continuously improve towards achieving a principled definition of sustainability. b) Explain how the aspects of Urban Planning and Land Use covered in Module 2 can be used to help society move towards sustainability. (4 points) Based on the analysis we derive from the FSSD, 4 SP and systems thinking, supported by the work of ecological economists, we now understand that decision-making for Urban Planning and Land Use how we plan our physical occupation of space by humans must focus on the integration of humans within the ecosphere, an integrated urban planning strategy. As Bill Reed eloquently describe in his model of the Living Systems Approach to Design, the design process must first begin by understanding the life processes in each unique place in which we are building and then we must design that engagement in order to sustain and restore the health and wealth of the place. In this new way of operating, the objective toward which the citys government and institutions work must be to improve the life of citizens and regenerate the health of the natural space which is occupied. The city plan, developed within a process of dialog and with the full participation/representation of the stakeholders, must clearly articulate these core values. Integrated urban planning actions, based on valuing the individual putting people first within the ecosphere, conserving and restoring natural resources, will result in an ecological, people-centered city. Commitment to values such as accessibility, transparency, social justice and poverty reduction and efficient resource management will result sustainable urban development. This overarching strategy would inform all aspects of urban planning, including social, economic and environmental programs. This ecological city-strategy, with strong, coherent governing/design values and a focus on integrated systems, combined with strong, informed leadership, can be used successfully to align the actions of planning departments to meet these strategic objectives, resulting in successful, long-term implementation of strategy. Integrated transportation and land-use should be a key component in the citys development, controlling growth, cutting pollution and enhancing the life of residents. The environmental quality and economic efficiency of a city are highly dependent on transportation systems; it is important that these are well-integrated with urban form in order to avoid weak transportation systems and unsustainable dependencies on private cars. A close relationship between public transportation and land-use legislation can be established as a guidance and development tool. Integrated planning processes structured to assure that planners in all areas know the strategy and are working with a shared vision and are developing their plans together, would avoid the many problems of unlinked development (e.g., not enough provision for green space). The integration of different elements of urban development would also avoid problems associated with piecemeal development such as pollution, traffic congestion and unsustainable fuel consumption rates. The creation of an independent Institute of Planning can be an effective mechanism for ensuring planning continuity and success regardless of political, economic and social challenges; this forum can serve as a laboratory for finding creative, integrated solutions to urban planning problems, a focal point for learning and ever-evolving organizational growth and change. Developing new models that provide inexpensive, creative urban solutions and reflect local values are an alternative to standard, often-higher-cost approaches. This Institute could also be the channel through which planners and stakeholders could learn about best practices in sustainable urban design which is being implemented successfully in other locations and nations. 14. Economics a) Environmental economists and ecological economists have different worldviews explaining the relationship between the economy and the ecosphere. Describe the environmental and ecological economists worldviews (4 points). In the 20th century, environmental economics was developed with the intent of internalizing the external effects of our current mode of economic production, such as pollution, social problems, loss of biodiversity, etc., into the economic system. Environmental economics modified the neoclassical economic system by using taxes and subsidies to raise prices on scarce resources while promoting the use of abundant ones. In the model of environmental economics, it is recognized that society and the economy are dependent upon the ecosphere. Their intent is to solve the problem by putting a price on natural resource supply, emissions and other externalities and bringing them into the economic analyses, by pricing mechanism which include: 1.Willingness to pay, 2. Cost to restore, and 3.New universal currencies. Through taxes, resources become more expensive, reflecting the societal and environmental costs of using them and thereby attempting to indirectly reduce their use to sustainable leve ls. In their model, market participants will behave in the accordance to the enlightened invisible hand of the neo-classists, which will result in a society which meets human needs, with acceptable levels of pollution and sustainable use of resources. Ecological economics is an interdisciplinary field of study that addresses relationships between ecosystems and economic systems in order to develop a deep understanding of society and nature as a basis for effective policies strategies for sustainability. Ecological economics utilizes a holistic, systems approach which views that socioeconom